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Confucianism had been predominant in most parts of Chinese history and was an important factor affecting Chinese view of its place in the world order. This is due to the fact that Chinese foreign policy was essentially an external expression of the principles of social and political order guiding Chinese state and society internally at that time.(p) Thus, Chinese foreign relations was accordingly hierarchical and nonegalitarian, just like the Chinese society which was guided by Confucian principles. As a result of Confucianism, Chinese foreign relations were grouped into three main zones, the Sinic Zone, the Inner Asian Zone and the Outer Zone. Confucianism became a source of ties for China and some non-Chinese states, but it was also part of the cultural difficulties complicating relations between China and culturally different West. China¡¦s foreign relation was therefore, Sino-centric, demanding the rulers of other states to follow the ideological commitment of the ruling elites within the Chinese world. Thus, in this paper, I will discuss how Confucianism affected China¡¦s view of its place in the world before the Qing dynasty.
As a result of Confucianism being a guiding force in Chinese foreign relations, the countries in contact with her were grouped into three zones. The Sinic Zone consisted of the proximate and culturally similar tributaries, Korea and Vietnam, the Ryukyu Islands and sometimes, Japan.(p) The Inner Asian Zone consisted of tributary tribes and states of Inner Asian who were outside or on the borders of the Chinese culture area. The Outer Zone included the ¡§outer barbarians¡¨ who were at a further distance over land or sea, including Southeast and South Asian states as well as Europe that were supposed to send tribute when trading. Thus, a Sino-centric world order with China as the centre, and at the top of the hierarchy was formed. The non-Chinese states and peoples were expected to be tributaries and subjects of the Son of Heaven and to pay proper respect to the Emperor as accordance to Confucian rituals and manners. This became a source of conflict complicating China's relations with the outer barbarians.
Since China¡¦s view of the world was Sino-centric and the Chinese thought themselves as superior to the barbaric non-Chinese, they were condescending in their conduct of foreign relations, expecting the barbarians to follow the superior Chinese culture and beliefs. Breaking an established order was deemed as most undesirable because China¡¦s external order was so closely linked to her internal order that one could not survive long without the other. Since the hierarchical social order under the Son of Heaven included Confucianism as a large ideological component, the Confucian orthodoxy became a necessity in the maintenance of the system. Thus, the Chinese were insistent on the non-Chinese states being proper tributaries of the Emperor and observing court etiquettes, as accordance to the Confucian idea that correct teachings exhibited through proper conduct, in the form of ceremonies and etiquette, would give one prestige and power over the others. It would serve to show how the all wise example and virtue of the Emperor had not only served throughout China proper, but has also spread outwards to all mankind. Consequently, another impact of the Sino-centrism was the tribute system predominant in China¡¦s foreign affairs. If any countries would like to have contact with China, they were obliged to do so as tributaries. Trade was a privilege granted to them by the emperor and must be accompanied by the Confucian formalities of presenting tribute through missions to Peking. This political framework was essential even for economic relations to work out.
Thus, Confucianism became part of the cultural difficulties complicating relations between China and the Outer Zone as an understanding could not be reached between the two. For instance, while China had no conception of equality, the West had already recognized each other as equal in the family of nations. As a result of Chinese seeing themselves as culturally superior to the ¡§barbaric¡¨ non-Chinese, mandarins at Canton refused to recognize traders and diplomatic officials as their equals and treated them in a most arrogant manner. Russian or British envoys that refused to kowtow were considered as rebels who tried to destroy the established scheme of things. (P) There was another problem with the Confucian ranking of merchants as lowest in the social hierarchy. Foreign traders were treated with the same contempt and disregard as Chinese merchants and this became a source of conflict as the foreign merchants were indignant about the manner they were treated by the Chinese officials. However, Confucianism was not always problematic in China¡¦s foreign relations. Unlike the problems encountered by Confucianism in the Outer Zone, Confucianism was part of the cultural bonds tying states in the Sinic Zone to China, as seen in the adoption of Confucian philosophy and values in Vietnam and Korea.
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Confucianism also affected the ways employed by China for dealing with the barbarians. There were basically two tendencies, one towards pacifism and one towards militarism and Confucian scholars had quoted from the Confucian classic, Tso chuan to add credence to the policy they advocated. The Confucian concept of the ideal king as the universal king was shown in the Ming period. Confucianism also advocated the idea of appeasement, saying that if the foreigners are not submissive, the influences of civic culture and virtue could be cultivated into them to make them contented and peaceful.
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