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This paper summarizes a variety of articles, which explore the issue of grandparents serving as surrogate parents. Dr. Charlie Steele suggested that .1 million children live with their grandparents; million of these live exclusively with their grandparents. He also said that there are a variety of factors, which lead grandparents to take on such a role. Author Meredith Minkler details this in her writing “For increasing numbers, grandparenting has in fact become ‘second-time-around parenting,’ as a consequence of factors including alcohol and drug abuse, teenage pregnancy, divorce, incarceration, and AIDS.” (Minkler Roe 16). Minkler also notes that this grandparent as caregiver phenomenon is experienced by all socio-economic and ethnic groups, but that it seems to be more prevalent in impoverished areas.
As more and more grandparents step into the role of care-provider for their grandchildren, it is important to consider the costs and rewards that they experience from such an arrangement. According to notes taken from Dr. Steele’s Aging and the Family class, grandparents usually enter the role of surrogate parent as a result of negative circumstances. Nonetheless, these grandparents can experience many rewards such as companionship, the chance to raise kids again and the feeling that they are contributing to family survival. He also expressed that there are several costs involved with this set-up. Grandparent caregivers can experience a great amount of stress as they struggle to provide the best for their grandkids. The financial responsibility alone can be overwhelming for these care providers, not to mention the energy and time burdens, which get laid upon the backs of these grandparents. Also, surrogate parenting can take its toll on the grandparents’ marital relationship.
I hope that the articles I have chosen will demonstrate the importance of this issue, especially in relation to the welfare of the grandparents serving in this model. In order to understand their challenges and concerns, we must look at the entire context in which they are situated, considering all family members involved, the circumstances leading up to the arrangement and the level of supports being offered to these persons.
Roe, K.M., Minkler, M. (Winter ’8-’). Grandparents raising grandchildren
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challenges and responses. Generations, no.4, 5-.
In the article, “Grandparents raising grandchildren challenges and responses,” Roe and Minkler discuss the phenomenon of grandparents who are raising their grandchildren. They say that the willingness of grandparents to step in, where familial breakdown has occurred, is not a new concept, but that the rapid growth in which this is occurring is definitely new. The authors review some of the causes for this increase in intergenerational grandparent-led households as well as the emotional, social and political challenges that these grandparents and their grandchildren face.
Roe and Minkler disclose many reasons for the increase in grandparent and kinship care beginning in the 180’s. Formal, legal decisions, such as the one to allow relatives to become foster and adoptive parents, explain part of the increase. Informal explanations like divorce, teen pregnancy, drug abuse, AIDS, the rapid growth of single-parent headed households and the incarceration of women, may provide more of an answer. Roe and Minkler emphasize that the majority of these causes are tied to poverty. They suggest that poverty is the most forceful factor in determining which families depend on a grandparent caregiver. Roe and Minkler write that being single, poor and an African American increases the odds that one will become a care-giving grandparent. They also note the exceptions, that recent studies reveal, which say that many white, married, middle class women are raising their grandchildren.
Although the reasons for many older adults entering a care-giving role are negative, grandparents who rear grandchildren still experience numerous rewards such as a renewed sense of purpose as well as a deeper companionship with their grandchildren. Roe and Minkler tell how the grandchildren also benefit from this relationship; they receive love and security from older adults who are more stable. This is not to say that there are not a lot of difficult challenges, which face both sides of the arrangement. Roe and Minkler reveal that many grandparents who raise their grandchildren have high rates of depression and chronic illness, experience decreased socialization with friends and their community, sense a decline in marital satisfaction and face financial difficulties as they quit their jobs or spend their savings. The authors reveal that these difficulties also weigh heavily on grandchildren who experience declines in their physical and emotional health.
As an attempt to combat some of these challenges, grandparent caregivers and advocates have been fighting for supportive intervention programs. The first generation advocacy programs of the 180’s, emphasized the development of support groups, which met in homes or churches and offered mutual aid to older people who were raising their grandchildren. These support groups, which were about educating the community and supporting each other, ultimately led to the formation of more comprehensive groups that could receive funding. The second generation advocacy programs, which began in the 10’s, were centered around a collective fight for systemic and policy change. The unified fight of these grandparent caregivers led to the development of resource centers, which are still in place today. These centers offer assistance and referrals to needy grandparents and are used as educational cooperatives that help everyone involved to create positive policy change for care-giving grandparents and their grandchildren. As a result of these efforts, many grant-based projects have been launched that have been able to address local and national needs by forcing the implementation of innovative ideas for aiding grandparent-headed households. Roe and Minkler suggest that the next generation of advocates need to push for intergenerational legislative decision making, which places the caregiving grandparent in a central role.
Szinovacz, M.E., DeViney, S., Atkinson, M.P. (1). Effects of surrogate
parenting on grandparents’ well-being. Journal of Gerontology, 54B, S76-S88.
“Effects of Surrogate Parenting on Grandparents’ Well-Being” is an article, written by Maximilian E. Szinovacz, Stanley DeViney, and Maxine P. Atkinson, which focuses on a study that explores whether depressive symptoms appear, life satisfaction levels are affected and whether or not there is differences within races or genders, when grandchildren move in or out of their grandparents’ households. They authors investigate to see if the arrangement of surrogate parenting directly affects the subjective well-being of grandparents (life changes) or if their well-being is indirectly affected by the impact of other life changes that come about as a result of being a surrogate parent.
This article begins by highlighting past research, which has centered on the subject of the effects of surrogate parenting on grandparents’ well-being. The authors of this article note that while most of this earlier research suggests that grandparents who occupy this role of surrogate parent experience a decline in their health, income, social contacts and psychological well-being, there is further investigation to be done. The authors claim this, because much of the previous research relied on retrospective accounts and did not measure whether or not the grandparents’ well-being was directly affected by surrogate parenting responsibilities.
In light of the previous research though, Szinovacz, DeViney, and Atkinson were able to derive their own theories on the subject. They theorize that the transition from grandparenting to surrogate parenting does have a direct negative effect on grandparents’ well-being (more depressive symptoms and a decline in life satisfaction). They also argue that when grandchildren move out of the household, grandparents’ psychological well-being is enhanced. The authors also hypothesize that the effects of surrogate parenting vary by race and gender; the effects are stronger for grandmothers (who tend to take on the caring role) and also for black grandparents (they often assume this role under harsher circumstances).
The method that these authors used to test and verify their theories/hypotheses was one that relied on longitudinal information provided by the National Survey of Families and Household. The data had been collected in two waves, where the respondents and their spouses were either interviewed or asked to fill out a questionnaire. After accounting for fall out, the end sample size was 1,78 persons. Depressive symptoms and life satisfaction levels were measured by using the standardized well-being questionnaire and the scores between the two waves of time were calculated to reflect correct raw scores. Comparisons of the independent variables (such as duration of surrogate parenting, health income and social supports/contacts) were made with the main focus being on the existing changes between the two waves. Path analysis, which breaks apart the independent variables’ effect, was the method used to determine whether the effects of surrogate parenting directly impacted the grandparents’ well-being.
The authors found that with regard to life changes, Caucasian grandmothers reported less involvement in church-related events, increased supports from friends and relatives when grandchildren move in and a decline in such supports when grandchildren move out, than grandmothers of other ethnic backgrounds. Caucasian grandfathers, on the other hand, did not report any significant alterations in their church activities. What they did report was an increase in their visits to bars and taverns, both when their grandchildren moved in and when they moved out. As far as all of the participating grandparents’ well-being, the authors noted an increase in the depressive symptoms in grandmothers, thus revealing that they were directly affected. The authors report that grandfathers experienced an increase in depressive symptoms only when their grandchildren moved out. Grandmothers did not experience a decline in their depressive symptoms when their grandchildren moved out. This is contrary to what the authors had hypothesized. Overall, the authors discovered that the impact of indirect effects on life changes due to surrogate parenting was quite small.
The authors discuss their findings, noting that surrogate parenting does not necessarily bring about significant changes in grandparents’ lives. The changes which surrogate parenting does bring however, differ by gender. Potential negative effects are usually dependent upon the circumstances in which the grandparents enter into this responsibility. The effects on grandparents’ overall psychological well-being is quite small according to this study. This study also shows that there are no concrete differences based on race. The authors conclude that all grandparents, regardless of demographic profile, may experience deterioration in certain areas of their lives, but that such deterioration may have nothing to do with someone being surrogate parents for their grandchildren. The authors suggest that this kind of deterioration may occur regardless of the situation. They also suggest that we need to have more of a collective family systems perspective when studying this subject, so that we are able to understand the impact of surrogate parenting on the entire family system.
Burton, L. Devries, C. (Summer ). Challenges and rewards African American
grandparents as surrogate parents. Generations, 16 no., 51-54.
In the article “Challenges and Rewards African American Grandparents as Surrogate Parents,” Linda Burton and Cynthia Devries focus on the challenges and rewards experienced by African American grandparents who are raising their grandchildren. The authors conducted several case studies to investigate the lives of these grandparents, who seem to assume the role of surrogate grandparent so willingly and sacrificially.
Two ethnographic studies were conducted. In these studies, the voices of one hundred and one grandparents/great-grandparents were heard and assessed to see how they view their role.
The first study was conducted from December 188 to June 18 and involved 15 African American grandmothers and great-grandmothers ranging from 4-7 years of age (residing in a Northwestern urban community). Their job status, marital status, the number of children being raised and the ages of the children being raised varied.
The second study is an ongoing study in a Northeastern urban community, which adds grandfathers to the mix of respondents. The purpose of this second study is to look at the effects of teenage childbearing on older men and women within the family. In both studies, competent researchers interviewed the subjects. These interviews lasted anywhere from three to seven hours and highlighted the experiences and feelings of these grandparents serving as surrogate parents.
Most of the grandparents noted problems they face in caring for multiple generations. Not only are they caring for grandchildren, but they are also caring for adult children and elderly relatives. Also, many of the teenage grandchildren they care for are also having children, thus adding another generation that they have to parent. One great-grandmother revealed concerns at having so many family members depending on her, saying, “I am stretched so thin that sometimes I wonder if I can seriously make it.” (p. )
Another concern that these grandparents voiced is the permanency of such arrangements. Many suggested in their interviews that they had not expected to raise their grandchildren for so long. What they thought at first to be temporary turned out to be a long-term situation. With the permanency of such a situation, these grandparents noted their lack of ability to consistently keep up with the school and social activities of their grandchildren.
Even though all participants spoke about the negative toll that this arrangement had on their personal lives, they also spoke of rewards they had experienced. Many described that the opportunity to parent again was a blessing and an opportunity to burgeon a legacy. These interviewees also reported deep feelings of love and companionship stemming from their relationship with their grandchildren.
Burton and Devries concluded that although these one hundred and one African American men and women respondents represent a small population, their views on the subject of surrogate parenting, might well give accurate voice to all racial and socioeconomic groups who are experiencing this role as surrogate parents. Grandparents of all backgrounds are being called upon by family and community services to care for the needs of vulnerable children and are all facing similar struggles. Therefore, the authors suggest supports must be available for these grandparents so that they are able to not only help their loved ones, but take care of themselves as well.
Caputo, R.K. (001). The intergenerational transmission of grandmother-
grandchild co-residency. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 8, 7-86.
In “The Intergenerational Transmission of Grandmother-Grandchild Co-Residency,” Richard K. Caputo looks at national data from longitudinal surveys on women to determine whether or not black grandmothers, who live with their grandchildren, are more prone to have daughters who will also live with and care for their grandchildren. Caputo’s study expands upon previous research about co-residential households to examine “the extent to which grandmothers who lived with grandchildren in one generation were likely to have daughters who in turn lived with grandchildren in the next generation”. (p.80) He also looks at whether these grandchild-grandmother arrangements are more common among blacks. The author felt that the answers to such questions could shed light on this intergenerational co-habiting form, by revealing to what extent these arrangements are results of culture.
Caputo studied the data collected from the National Longitudinal Surveys of Labor Market Experience (NLS). The data represents over ten thousand women from two cohorts, the Young Women’s Cohort (ages 14-5 in 168) and the Mature Women’s Cohort (0-44 in 167). A large proportion of the women were paired, which means that mothers in the mature cohort had daughters participating in the young cohort. These respondents were interviewed regularly and were asked questions related to their demographical situation, from their starting dates until17. They were categorized as either ‘co-resident grandmothers’ or ‘ever co-resident grandmothers’ depending on how often, during the longitudinal study, grandchildren were reported as household members. They were also classified by race (of the mother) and socioeconomic status, which was measured by assessing the educational level (often linked to poverty levels) of each respondent’s mother. The author notes that this sample of the population can’t be completely generalized and is just a limited look into the intergenerational transmission of this type of co-residency.
The results of the study reveal, as the author expected, that a high proportion of the ever co-resident grandmother-grandchild mother-daughter pairs were black. These mother-daughter pairs also were of lower socio-economic status than those of non-paired ever co-resident grandmothers. Caputo discusses how these findings show that black women are more likely to follow this intergenerational transmission of grandmother-grandchild co-residency patterns. These results also suggest that culture may play a significant role in relation to familial adaptability and support. Caputo writes how the tradition of familial responsibility and flexibility in the African American community, might be a result of the models that these black grandmothers set forth for their children; they model the importance to do the right thing in times of hardships.
Caputo concludes by saying that black mothers are more likely than other ethnic groups, to become care providers for their grandchildren and have daughters who will also assume this role. He also argues that these black mothers face major challenges in the workplace. They usually work at jobs with little or no family benefits. Therefore, he insists that advocates for these mothers must demand affirmative action policies be in place so that black women will obtain those ‘coveted jobs’ that offer benefits. Caputo also argues that since the poor are increasingly affected by this intergenerational transmission of grandparent-grandchild co-habitation, welfare reform laws must be geared so that the poor are not penalized for rearranging their lives in order to take care of dependent children.
Spence, S.A., Black, S.R., Adams, J.P., Crowther, M.R. (001). Grandparents and
grandparenting in a rural southern state. Journal of Family Issues, , 5-
54.
In “Grandparents and Grandparenting in a Rural Southern State A Study of Demographic Characteristics, Roles, and Relationships”, the authors examine the roles of grandparents and the impact that grandparenting has on other domains of their lives. The authors consider data, which was collected on Alabama grandparents in 16. They note that increased life expectancy as well as the national trend for women to have babies very early or very late in life, has greatly increased the number of grandparents who live in the U.S. In light of this increase, they argue that there is a need for more research dealing with the “sociodemographics” of these grandparents as well as the roles they occupy.
The article first considers research done on U.S. grandparents as a whole. The authors found that most literature “indicates substantial interaction between grandparents and their grandchildren.” (p. 55) Past literature also leads one to believe that most grandparents see their grandchildren quite often (about 75% seeing their grandkids every week/couple of weeks) and provide them a significant amount of assistance. The authors reveal that the number of grandparents who are assuming parental responsibility for their grandchildren (custodial grandparents or surrogate parents) has increased and that this phenomenon is more common in the South. Grandparents everywhere are also taking on other roles such as mentor, advice giver, family history keeper and stress manager. Depending on the importance and the intensity of role, this study shows that a grandparent’s life is often disrupted. The authors of this article set out to determine the “the degree to which grandparenting interferes with other important activities such as work, self-care, and leisure.” (p. 56)
These researchers used data collected from a statewide poll, which was completed by the University of Alabama over a two-month period in 16. 46 adults (1 and older) were randomly selected and surveyed by telephone. Each participant was asked whether or not they were a grandparent and if they answered yes, they were then questioned about their roles, activities and levels of support. The measures assessed were the types of instrumental and affective supports grandparents offered to their grandchildren. Also measured was the extent to which the grandparents perceived their involvement with grandchildren to be interfering with other aspects of their lives. This perceived involvement was gathered by using a Likert scale questionnaire.
The results show that of the 158 adults who said they were grandparents, the average age was 61 years old. A little more than 50% were married females and only 0% of them had completed high school. Almost 0% of them were white and half of the entire sample were at family incomes below $0,000. Almost half of the 158 person sample reported having frequent contact with their grandchildren. Also, the majority of these persons claimed to be very involved in the lives of their grandchildren, especially in instrumental categories. As far as the effects of their involvement on other life activities (caring for friends and neighbors, working), most reported that there was very little interference. Although, when considering the co-residence variable, the grandparents who had grandchildren residing with them, were more likely to report interference.
The authors note in the discussion of their findings that the overall sample of grandparents provided a substantial amount of assistance to their grandkids, regardless of the varying frequency or the level of their assistance. The only grandparents who reported that such assistance interfered with their other life activities, were those grandparents who acted as custodial grandparents. These custodial grandparents (70,000 in Alabama alone) reported many stresses and concerns due to their role as care provider. Therefore, Spence, Black, Adams and Crowther suggest that more attention be given to these situations, in hopes that all custodial grandparents will receive the benefits and supports they need to maintain such a role.
In review of the research which is represented in the above five articles, I have come to several conclusions about the issue of grandparents who serve as surrogate parents. I have come to realize that grandparents in this arrangement face a variety of challenges, which are more difficult than I had imagined. The fact that many grandparents have to give up their jobs or social activities to care for these unexpected guests is hard, because the loss of these things usually results in emotional, financial and psychological hardships. This surrogate parenting role would be tough for anyone who took on the responsibility of a relative, but it is especially rough on these older adults who find that in their generous hospitality, there is little if any appreciation. This lack of appreciation is evident in the fact that there are so few local and national supports, which should be set up to help these struggling care providers fulfill their roles. If such supports were in place, it is likely that many of the negative effects, (highlighted in the article “Effects of Surrogate Parenting on Grandparents’ Well-Being”) would be eradicated. Since political legislators are year after year refusing to pay much attention to this gap, it seems that a clear message is being sent to the entire nation The elderly, who are taking on a role which ultimately helps U.S. communities and families survive, are not an important enough constituency to warrant Federal funds.
A couple of the articles, which focused on black grandmothers who have accepted this surrogate parenting role, revealed that there is evidence for intergenerational surrogate parenting transmission. This is disturbing to me in some ways, because this reveals that a cycle of dependency is perpetuating itself in African-American communities. In other ways, it is impressive to me that these African-American grandmothers are modeling what it means to be a selfless human being. These women, along with all grandmothers and grandfathers serving as surrogate parents for their grandchildren, should be commended for their continued strength in the midst of mostly ignored would-be catastrophes.
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